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Definition:ArtofDesigningbuildingsand non-buildingstructures. Theartandtechniqueofdesigningandbuilding,asdistinguishedfromtheskillsassociatedwithconstruction. ArchitecturefromGreekword: - Chief+Creator. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and asworks of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architecturalachievements. Thethreeimportant thingsneededforastructuretoexist, thoseare

• Durability
• Utility
• Beauty

AccordingtoRomanArchitectVirtuvius(Vitruvius),thearchitectshouldstrivetofulfillDurability,UtilityandBeauty aswell.

In the late 20th century, a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure andfunction,theconsiderationofsustainability,hencesustainablearchitecture.Tosatisfythecontemporaryethosa building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production ofits materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands thatitmakesuponnon-sustainablepowersourcesforheating,cooling,water and waste management,and lighting.

Buildingfirstevolvedoutofthedynamicsbetweenneeds(shelter,security,worship,etc.)andmeans (availablebuilding materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalizedthroughoraltraditionsandpractices,buildingbecameacraft,and"architecture" is then amegiventothemosthighly formalized and respected versions of that craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was theproduct ofaprocess oftrialanderror,withprogressivelyless trialandmore. The architectureandurbanism of the Classical civilizations suchas the GreekandtheRomanevolved from civic ideal sratherthanreligiousorempiricalonesandnew building type semerged.

The Characteristics:

Thecharacteristicsthatdistinguishaworkofarchitecturefromotherbuiltstructuresare
(1) thesuitabilityoftheworktouse byhumanbeingsingeneralandtheadaptabilityofittoparticularhumanactivities,
(2) thestabilityandpermanenceofthework’sconstruction,and
(3) thecommunicationofexperienceandideasthroughitsform.Alltheseconditionsmustbemetinarchitecture.

Asianarchitecture:

• Indianarchitecture:TheKandariyaMahadevTemple(Khajuraho,MadyaPradesh,India).
• Chinesearchitecture:TheHallofprayer forgoodHarvests,themainbuildingoftheTempleofheaven(Beijing, China).
• Japanesearchitecture:TheHimejicastle(Himeji, HyogoPrefecture,Japan).
• Khmerarchitecture:TheBakong(nearSiemReap,Cambodia),earliestsurvivingtempleMountainat Angkor, completed in881AD.

Architecturetoday:

• TheMeadowsMuseum(Dallas,Texas USA)
• TheBeijingNationalStadium(Beijing,China)
• ThelibraryandLearningCenteroftheUniversityofVienna(Vienna,Austria)
• TheIsbjergethousingproject(Aarhus,Denmark).

Spaceandmass:

Space, the immaterialessencethatthepaintersuggestsandthesculptor fills, thearchitectenvelops, creating a wholly humanandfinit eenvironment with in the infinite environment of nature.
The appreciation of mass, like that of space, depends on movement, but this movement must bephysical.Itcannotbeexperiencedinanticipation,because,nomatterwhereonestandstoobserveeventhe simplest building, part of it is out of sight. The mass of a complex building is differently composedfrom every point of view. The 20th-century art critic Siegfried Giedion, emphasizing the need formovement in experiencing modern architecture, suggested that architecture may be four-dimensional,sincetime (formovement)isasmeaningful asthespatialdimensions.

Texture:

Texture plays a dual role in architecture: it expresses something of the quality of materials, and it gives aparticular quality to light. Although one absorbs both qualities simultaneously by eye, the first hastactile,thesecondvisual associations.

Specific tactile textures are peculiar to every material by virtue of its manufacture or naturalcomposition, but they may be altered to produce a variety of expressive qualities. Any stone may beusedinitsnatural,irregularstate,oritmaybechiseledinaroughorsmoothtextureorhighlypolishedtoconvey arange of meanings from vigortorefinement.

Visual textures are produced by the patterns given to the lighting of the surface both through the waythe materials are worked (e.g., vertical or horizontal chiseling of stone) and through the way they areemployedinbuilding(e.g.,verticalorhorizontalboarding,projectionandrecessionofcoursesofbrick).Like allpatterns, visualtexturescreateassociationsofmovement, giving rhythmtothe

Colour:

Since colour is a characteristic of all building materials, it is a constant feature of architecture. Butbuilding materials are selected primarily for their structural value, and their colours are not alwayssuitedtoexpressiverequirements;thus,othermaterialschosenfortheircolourarefrequentlyaddedto the surface. Theseincludepigments,which usually preserve the texture of the original surface,and
veneersofstone,wood,andavarietyofmanufacturedproductsthatentirelyalterthesurfacecharacter.

Environment:

Architecture, unlike most of the other arts, is not often conceived independently of particularsurroundings. The problems of design extendbeyondtheorganizingofspaceandmasscomplexestoincludetherelating ofthetotalformtoitsnaturalandarchitecturalenvironment. Insiteplanning,aprimaryfunctionofarchitecturaldesign,thearchitectaimstocreateharmonieswith preexistingelementsinthelandscapeand“townscape.” But the province of the architect is not limited to the conception of single structures in harmony with agiven setting. Throughout history, architects have been employed in giving a new form to theenvironmentitself:planningthenaturalsurroundingsbythedesignofparks,roadways,waterways,etc.;designing complexes of related buildings; and organizing the urban environment into areas of residence,recreation, assembly, commerce, etc., both to increase their utility and to give them unique expressivequalitiesthroughtheinterrelationshipofgroupsofbuildingstotheopenareasaboutthem.

Functionalism:

The notion of functional art, is most appropriately related to architectural theory under threeheadings,namely (1) theideathatnobuildingisbeautifulunlessit properlyfulfillsitsfunction,
(2) theideathatifabuildingfulfillsitsfunction,itisipsofactobeautiful,and
(3) the idea that, since form relates to function, allartifacts, including buildings, are a speciesofindustrial,orapplied,art.

Architectural types:

Architectureiscreatedonlytofulfillthespecificationsofanindividualorgroup.Economiclawprevents architects from emulating their fellow artists in producing works for which thedemandisnonexistentor onlypotential. So,thetypesofarchitecturedependuponsocialformationsandmay beclassifiedaccordingtothe roleofthepatronin thecommunity.Thetypes thatwillbediscussedhere

• Domestic
• Religious
• Governmental
• Recreational
• ArchitectureofWelfareandEducational
• CommercialandIndustrialArchitecture

—representthesimplestclassification;ascientifictypologyofarchitecturewouldrequireamoredetailed analysis.

Domesticarchitecture:

Domesticarchitectureisproducedforthesocialunit:theindividual,family,orclanandtheirdependents, human and animal. It provides shelter and security for the basic physicalfunctions of life and at times also for commercial, industrial, or agricultural activities thatinvolvethefamilyunitrather thanthecommunity.

Thebasicrequirementsofdomesticarchitecturearesimple:aplacetosleep,preparefood,eat,and perhaps work; a place that has some light and is protected from the weather. A singleroom with sturdy walls and roof, a door, a window, and a hearth are the necessities; all elsecanbeconsidered luxury.

Religiousarchitecture:

The history of architecture is concerned more with religious buildings than with any othertype, because in most past cultures the universal and exalted appeal of religion made thechurchortemplethemostexpressive,themostpermanent,andthemostinfluential buildinginanycommunity.

The typology of religious architecture is complex, because no basic requirements such as thosethat characterize domestic architecture are common to all religions and because the functionsof any one religion involve many different kinds of activity, all of which change with theevolutionofculturalpatterns.

Governmentalarchitecture:

Thebasicfunctionsofgovernment,toanevengreaterextentthanthoseofreligion,aresimilarin all societies: administration, legislation, and the dispensing of justice. But the architecturalneeds differ according to the nature of the relationship between the governing and thegoverned.

Recreationalarchitecture:

Few recreations require architecture until they become institutionalized and must provide forboth active and passive participation (athletic events, dramatic, musical performances, etc.) orforcommunal participationinessentially privateluxuries(baths,museums,libraries). Throughouthistory,recreationalarchitecturehasbeenthemostconsistentinformofanytype.

Architecture of welfare and education:

The principal institutions of public welfare are those that provide facilities for education,health,publicsecurity,andutilities.Someofthesefunctionsareperformedbythechurchandthe state, but, since their character is not essentially religious or political, they may requireindependentarchitecturalsolutions,particularlyinurbanenvironments.

Commercial and industrial architecture:

Buildings for exchange, transportation, communication, manufacturing, and powerproductionmeettheprincipalneedsofcommerceandindustry.Inthepasttheseneedsweremostly unspecialized. They were met either within domestic architecture or in buildingsdistinguished from domestic types chiefly by their size. Stores, banks, hostelries, guildhalls,andfactoriesrequiredonlyspaceformorepersonsandthingsthanhouses could accommodate. Bridges, warehouses, and other structures not used for sheltering people were,of course, specialized from the beginning and survived the Industrial Revolution without basicchanges. The Industrial Revolution profoundly affected the typology as well as the techniquesof architecture. Through the introduction of the machine and mass production, economic lifemoved out of the domestic environment into an area dominated by devices and processesrather than by individuals, creating the need for buildings more specialized and morenumerous than the total accumulation of types throughout history. All the types cannot bediscussed here, but a categorical listing into which they can be fitted will illustrate theirimportancefor architecture:

• Exchange(officebuildings,stores,markets,banks,exchanges,warehouses,exhibitionhalls);
• Transportation (roads, bridges, tunnels; stations for rail, sea, and air transport andthe dispensingoffuel; garages,hangars, andotherstoragefacilities;hotels);
• Communication (structures for the transmission and reception of telephone,telegraph, radio, television, and radar communication; for the printing anddistribution of newspapers, magazines, books, and other reading matter; for motion-pictureproduction;andforadvertising functions);
• Production(mines,factories,laboratories,food-processingplants);
• Power(dams,generatingplants;fuelstorage,processing,anddistributioninstallations).

Architectural planning:

The architect usually begins to work when the site and the type and cost of a building havebeendetermined.

The site involves the varying behaviour of the natural environment that must be adjusted totheunvaryingphysicalneedsofhumanbeings;thetypeisthegeneralizedformestablishedbysociety that must be adjusted to the special use for which the building is required; the costimplies the economics of land, labour, and materials that must be adjusted to suit a particularsum.

Thus,planningistheprocessofparticularizingand,ultimately,ofharmonizingthedemandsof environment, use, and economy. This process has a cultural as well as a utilitarian value,for in creating a plan for any social activity the architect inevitably influences the way inwhichthat activityisperformed.

Planning the environment:

The natural environment is at once a hindrance and a help, and the architect seeks both to invite its aidand to repel its attacks. To make buildings habitable and comfortable, the architect must control theeffects of heat, cold, light, air, moisture, and dryness and foresee destructive potentialities such as fire,earthquake,flood,anddisease.

Themethodsofcontrollingtheenvironmentconsideredhereareonlythepracticalaspectsofplanning.They are treated by the architect within the context of the expressive aspects. The placement and formof buildings in relation to their sites, the distribution of spaces within buildings, and other planningdevicesdiscussedbelowarefundamentalelementsintheaestheticsofarchitecture.

Use

The types of architecture are established not by architects but by society, according to the needs of itsdifferentinstitutions.Societysetsthegoalsandassignstothearchitectthejoboffindingthemeansofachieving them. This section of the article is concerned with architectural typology, with the role ofsociety in determining the kinds of architecture, and with planning—the role of the architect inadapting designstoparticularusesandtothegeneralphysicalneedsofhumanbeings.

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Orientation

The arrangement of the axes of buildings and their parts is a device for controlling the effects of sun,wind, and rainfall. The sun is regular in its course; it favours the southern and neglects the northernexposures of buildings in the Northern Hemisphere, so that it may be captured for heat or evaded forcoolness by turning the axis of a plan toward or away from it. Within buildings, the axis and placementof each space determines the amount of sun it receives. Orientation may control air for circulation andreducethedisadvantagesofwind,rain,andsnow, since inmostclimatestheprevailingcurrentscanbe for eseen. The characteristics of the immediate environment also influence orientation: trees, landformations, and other buildings create shade and reduce or intensify wind, while bodies of waterproducemoisture andreflectthesun.

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